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    <title>움직이지 않는 대도서관</title>
    <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/</link>
    <description>오타쿠를 지향하는 애호가입니다.</description>
    <language>ko</language>
    <pubDate>Sat, 16 May 2026 01:07:48 +0900</pubDate>
    <generator>TISTORY</generator>
    <ttl>100</ttl>
    <managingEditor>파츄리 노우릿지</managingEditor>
    <image>
      <title>움직이지 않는 대도서관</title>
      <url>https://tistory1.daumcdn.net/tistory/8066167/attach/f3941dd779a64202a560bafc3b425486</url>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com</link>
    </image>
    <item>
      <title>금광 하나 더 생김</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/115</link>
      <description>&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;figure class=&quot;imageblock alignCenter&quot; data-ke-mobileStyle=&quot;widthOrigin&quot; data-origin-width=&quot;5712&quot; data-origin-height=&quot;4284&quot;&gt;&lt;span data-url=&quot;https://blog.kakaocdn.net/dn/bTiF39/dJMcadnn40e/B9AA030tF1bLk61XITr5zk/img.jpg&quot; data-phocus=&quot;https://blog.kakaocdn.net/dn/bTiF39/dJMcadnn40e/B9AA030tF1bLk61XITr5zk/img.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://blog.kakaocdn.net/dn/bTiF39/dJMcadnn40e/B9AA030tF1bLk61XITr5zk/img.jpg&quot; srcset=&quot;https://img1.daumcdn.net/thumb/R1280x0/?scode=mtistory2&amp;fname=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.kakaocdn.net%2Fdn%2FbTiF39%2FdJMcadnn40e%2FB9AA030tF1bLk61XITr5zk%2Fimg.jpg&quot; onerror=&quot;this.onerror=null; this.src='//t1.daumcdn.net/tistory_admin/static/images/no-image-v1.png'; this.srcset='//t1.daumcdn.net/tistory_admin/static/images/no-image-v1.png';&quot; loading=&quot;lazy&quot; width=&quot;5712&quot; height=&quot;4284&quot; data-origin-width=&quot;5712&quot; data-origin-height=&quot;4284&quot;/&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;당황스럽네&lt;/p&gt;</description>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/115</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/115#entry115comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Sun, 15 Feb 2026 13:11:53 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Number System</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/114</link>
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&lt;div style=&quot;border-left: 5px solid #2c3e50; padding: 15px; background-color: #f8f9fa; margin-bottom: 30px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin: 0; font-style: italic; color: #555;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 10px;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;작성하신 필기 노트는 &lt;b&gt;Rudin의 PMA(Principles of Mathematical Analysis) 1장&lt;/b&gt;의 핵심 흐름인 &lt;b&gt;수 체계의 구성(Construction of Number System)&lt;/b&gt;을 완벽하게 관통하고 있습니다. 집합론적 기초에서 시작해 실수의 완비성을 증명하고, 대수적 닫힘을 위해 복소수까지 나아가는 과정을 엄밀하게 정리했습니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;1. 집합에서 자연수로 ($\text{Set} \to \mathbb{N}$)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;필기하신 &lt;i&gt;&quot;$0 \to 1 \to \dots$ (Induction)&quot;&lt;/i&gt; 부분은 &lt;b&gt;폰 노이만 서수(Von Neumann Ordinals)&lt;/b&gt;를 통한 자연수의 정의입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f1f3f5; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: none; padding-left: 10px; margin: 0;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$0 = \emptyset$ (공집합)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$1 = \{0\} = \{\emptyset\}$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$2 = \{0, 1\} = \{\emptyset, \{\emptyset\}\}$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$n+1 = n \cup \{n\}$ (계승자, Successor)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 15px;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;여기에 &lt;b&gt;페아노 공리(Peano Axioms)&lt;/b&gt;, 그중에서도 5번째 공리인 &lt;b&gt;수학적 귀납법(Induction)&lt;/b&gt;이 더해져 자연수 체계의 논리적 토대가 완성됩니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;2. 자연수에서 정수로 ($\mathbb{N} \to \mathbb{Z}$)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;자연수는 덧셈에 대해 닫혀있지만, 역원(뺄셈)이 존재하지 않아 $3+x=1$ 같은 방정식을 풀 수 없습니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;구성 (Construction):&lt;/b&gt; 자연수의 순서쌍 $\mathbb{N} \times \mathbb{N}$을 생각합니다. $(a, b)$는 직관적으로 $a-b$를 의미합니다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;동치 관계 (Equivalence Relation):&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;$(a, b) \sim (c, d) \iff a + d = b + c$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;위 관계를 만족하는 동치류(Equivalence Class)들의 집합이 바로 정수 $\mathbb{Z}$입니다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;3. 정수에서 유리수로 ($\mathbb{Z} \to \mathbb{Q}$)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;정수는 나눗셈에 대해 닫혀있지 않아 $2x=1$ 같은 방정식을 해결할 수 없습니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;구성 (Field of Fractions):&lt;/b&gt; 정수의 순서쌍 $(a, b)$ (단, $b \neq 0$)를 생각합니다. 이는 $a/b$를 의미합니다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;동치 관계:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;$(a, b) \sim (c, d) \iff ad = bc$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;특징:&lt;/b&gt; 유리수 집합 $\mathbb{Q}$는 가산 집합(Countable)입니다. 즉, 자연수와 일대일 대응이 가능합니다($\aleph_0$).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;4. 유리수에서 실수로 ($\mathbb{Q} \to \mathbb{R}$): 완비성(Completeness)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;가장 핵심적인 단계입니다. 유리수는 조밀(Dense)하지만 빈틈(Gap)이 있습니다($p^2=2$인 유리수 없음). 이를 메워 &lt;b&gt;해석학(극한, 미분)&lt;/b&gt;을 가능하게 합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0055a5; margin-top: 25px;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size23&quot;&gt;Method A. 데데킨트 절단 (Dedekind Cut)&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;필기 노트에서 상세히 증명하신 방법입니다. 실수를 '점'이 아닌 &lt;b&gt;'유리수 집합의 분할(Cut)'&lt;/b&gt; 그 자체로 정의합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;정의 (Cut $\alpha$):&lt;/b&gt; $\alpha \subset \mathbb{Q}$
&lt;ol style=&quot;list-style-type: decimal;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;decimal&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$\alpha \neq \emptyset, \alpha \neq \mathbb{Q}$ (Non-trivial)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$p \in \alpha, q &amp;lt; p \implies q \in \alpha$ (Closed downwards)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;$\alpha$에는 최댓값이 없다. (No largest element)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;이 정의를 통해 &lt;b&gt;LUB Property(최소상한 성질)&lt;/b&gt;가 증명됩니다. 즉, &quot;위로 유계인 모든 집합은 실수인 상한(Supremum)을 가진다.&quot;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0055a5; margin-top: 25px;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size23&quot;&gt;Method B. 코시 수열 (Cauchy Sequence)&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;거리가 가까워지는 유리수열들의 집합(동치류)으로 실수를 정의하는 방법입니다. 결과적으로 데데킨트 절단과 동형인 체(Isomorphic Field)를 만듭니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;5. 실수에서 복소수로 ($\mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{C}$)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;실수는 완비적이지만, $x^2 + 1 = 0$과 같은 방정식의 해가 없는 &lt;b&gt;대수적 불완전함(Algebraically Incomplete)&lt;/b&gt;이 남습니다. Rudin 1장의 마지막 퍼즐입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f3; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; border: 1px solid #ffccd5;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #c0392b;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size20&quot;&gt;Why Complex Numbers?&lt;/h4&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;유클리드 평면 $\mathbb{R}^2$ (순서쌍)에 &lt;b&gt;특수한 곱셈 구조&lt;/b&gt;를 부여하여 대수적으로 닫힌 체(Algebraically Closed Field)를 만들기 위함입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px; margin-top: 20px;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;정의:&lt;/b&gt; 복소수 $z = (a, b)$ ($a, b \in \mathbb{R}$)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;연산의 정의:&lt;/b&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;덧셈: $(a, b) + (c, d) = (a+c, b+d)$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;곱셈: $(a, b) \times (c, d) = (ac - bd, ad + bc)$&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;허수 단위 $i$:&lt;/b&gt; $(0, 1)$을 $i$라 정의하면, 위 곱셈 정의에 의해&lt;br /&gt;$i^2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (0\cdot0 - 1\cdot1, 0\cdot1 + 1\cdot0) = (-1, 0) = -1$ 이 됩니다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;성질:&lt;/b&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;Algebraic Closure:&lt;/b&gt; 모든 $n$차 다항식은 복소수 내에서 $n$개의 해를 가집니다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;순서 상실 (Unordered):&lt;/b&gt; 복소수 체 $\mathbb{C}$는 순서체(Ordered Field)가 될 수 없습니다. (양수/음수의 개념이 없음)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;6. 결론: 수학적 구조의 완성&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 20px; border: 1px solid #ddd;&quot; data-ke-align=&quot;alignLeft&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa;&quot;&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;개념&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;설명&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Uncountable&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;Cantor의 대각선 논법에 의해 실수는 셀 수 없음이 증명됨 ($|\mathbb{R}| &amp;gt; |\mathbb{N}|$).&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Euclidean Space&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;padding: 10px; border: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;$\mathbb{R}$을 $k$번 곱한 $\mathbb{R}^k$ 공간으로 확장되며, 내적(Inner product)과 거리(Metric) 개념으로 이어집니다.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 30px; text-align: right; color: #888; font-size: 0.9em;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;Based on Rudin's PMA &amp;amp; Your Lecture Notes&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Analysis</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/114</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/114#entry114comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Mon, 5 Jan 2026 19:16:58 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[오카 기요시] 수학자의 공부 (임시 업로드)</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/113</link>
      <description>&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: 'Apple SD Gothic Neo', 'Noto Sans KR', sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; color: #333;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;일본의 위대한 수학자 &lt;b&gt;오카 기요시(Oka Kiyoshi)&lt;/b&gt;의 에세이를 읽고 정리한 독서 노트입니다. 수학적 난제에 도전했던 그의 치열한 과정과 그가 깨달은 '수학의 본질(정서)'에 대한 통찰을 담았습니다.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px; font-size: 1.4em; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;1. 발견의 황홀한 기쁨 (난제 해결의 과정)&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; font-size: 1.1em; color: #444;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size23&quot;&gt;1) 배경과 도전&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px; color: #555;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;1929년의 상황:&lt;/b&gt; 하인리히 벵케와 페터 툴렌의 공저 『다변수 해석수론』이 독일에서 출간됨. 당시까지의 논문을 총망라했으나 &lt;b&gt;세 가지 중심적 문제&lt;/b&gt;가 미해결 상태로 남아있음.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;도전과 좌절:&lt;/b&gt; 이 문제들에 도전하여 150페이지 분량의 논문을 작성했으나, 스스로 리뷰한 결과 중심 문제를 전혀 다루지 못했음을 깨닫고 포기함.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;결심:&lt;/b&gt; 기존 논문은 요약해서 발표하고, 이듬해 1월부터 미해결 문제에 본격적으로 재도전하기로 결심.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; font-size: 1.1em; color: #444;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size23&quot;&gt;2) 고뇌의 시간과 전환점&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px; color: #555;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;관련 문헌을 찾기 위해 히로시마에서 교토대학까지 오감.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;두 달간 매달렸으나 문제는 거대한 산맥처럼 느껴졌고, 매일 방법을 바꿔가며 밤까지 시도함.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;세 달간의 낙담 끝에 지극히 단순한 문제조차 풀 수 없는 지경에 이름. (억지로 집중하면 10분 만에 졸음이 쏟아짐)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;전환점 (Hokkaido):&lt;/b&gt; 물리학자 나카야 우키치로의 연락으로 홋카이도 방문. 응접실에서 잠들었다가 좋지 않은 소문이 돌기 시작함.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;해결:&lt;/b&gt; 식사 후 연구실에 가만히 앉아있을 때, 비로소 생각이 정리됨 (2시간 30분 소요).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f7ff; border-left: 5px solid #0055a5; padding: 15px; margin: 20px 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;h4 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 10px 0; color: #0055a5;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size20&quot;&gt;  몰입(Flow)이 찾아오는 조건&lt;/h4&gt;
&lt;ol style=&quot;margin: 0; padding-left: 20px;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;decimal&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;극한의 &lt;b&gt;긴장감&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;처음 가는 길&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;아무것도 모르는 상태&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;+&amp;alpha;: 졸음이 쏟아지는 일종의 '방심 상태' (이완)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; font-size: 1.4em; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;2. 추천의 말 및 저자의 말&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; font-size: 1.1em; color: #444;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size23&quot;&gt;추천의 말&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: none; padding-left: 0;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 15px;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;황농문 (서울대 교수, '몰입' 저자):&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #666;&quot;&gt;&quot;성선설도 성악설도 아닌 '동물&amp;rarr;교육&amp;rarr;인간'의 과정이라 생각한다. 오카 기요시가 바로 그 예시이다. 그의 삶, 문학, 예술에 대한 통찰은 남다르다.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 15px;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;김성연 (KIAS 수학난제연구센터 교수):&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #666;&quot;&gt;&quot;명상하듯 수학 연구를 한 것으로 유명하다. 이 책에는 누구나 고민해봤을 '공부의 본질'에 대한 대가의 대답이 있다.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 15px;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;나카자와 신이치 (인류학자):&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #666;&quot;&gt;&quot;물질문명은 정서 구조로 새롭게 재창조되어야 한다.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 15px;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;변준기 (서울대 대학원생):&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #666;&quot;&gt;&quot;'계산으로 얻을 수 없는' 새로운 차원의 수학이 이 책에 담겨 있다.&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;blockquote style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; border-left: 5px solid #ccc; margin: 20px 0; padding: 15px 20px;&quot; data-ke-style=&quot;style1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;저자: 오카 기요시&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;교토대학 졸업 후 39년 동안 한눈팔지 않고 수학에만 매진했다.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&quot;수학이란 정서를 지성으로 표현하는 예술이다.&quot;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;무슨 쓸모가 있을까? 제비꽃은 제비꽃으로 피어있으면 그만이다.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px; font-size: 1.4em; color: #222;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size26&quot;&gt;3. 정서가 깊을수록 경지가 넓어진다&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; margin-top: 20px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 1.1em; font-weight: bold; color: #333;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;몰입의 메커니즘: &lt;span style=&quot;color: #d9534f;&quot;&gt;긴장&lt;/span&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;span style=&quot;color: #5bc0de;&quot;&gt;이완&lt;/span&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;span style=&quot;color: #5cb85c;&quot;&gt;해결&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; border-top: 1px dashed #ddd; margin: 15px 0;&quot; data-ke-style=&quot;style1&quot; /&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;color: #555;&quot; data-ke-list-type=&quot;disc&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;의문:&lt;/b&gt; 긴장을 길게 유지해야 하는 것 아닐까? 시각적 정보가 패턴으로 연결되는 것 아닐까?&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;결론:&lt;/b&gt; 무의식의 작용이 필수적이다.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;핵심 철학:&lt;/b&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;background-color: #fff0b3;&quot;&gt;(정서가) 깊을수록 학문의 경지가 넓어진다.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; color: #666; font-size: 0.9em;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;* 참고 인물: 아쿠타가와 류노스케, 나쓰메 소세키, 니시다 기타로&lt;br /&gt;* 비교 통찰: 동양 vs 서양 / 정서 vs 영감&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ccc;&quot; data-ke-style=&quot;style1&quot; /&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: right; color: #888; font-size: 0.9em;&quot; data-ke-size=&quot;size16&quot;&gt;Thinking with Gemini&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>교양</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/113</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/113#entry113comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Mon, 5 Jan 2026 18:59:47 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[LA] 텐서(다중 선형 사상), 힐베르트 공간(내적 공간의 확장), 군론(행렬군 표현)</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/112</link>
      <description>&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: 'Noto Sans KR', sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; color: #333;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;수학과 물리학이 '같은 개념'을 바라보는 두 가지 시선&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;순수 수학(Pure Mathematics)과 이론 물리학(Theoretical Physics)은 같은 언어를 공유하지만, 그 언어를 사용하는 목적과 철학에는 근본적인 차이가 있습니다. 수학적 엄밀함과 물리적 실재성 사이에서, 핵심 개념들(Tensor, Group, Hilbert Space)이 어떻게 다르게 정의되고 해석되는지 정리해 봅니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ddd; margin: 30px 0;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;1. 근본적인 접근 방식 (Philosophy)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;두 학문은 정의를 내리는 출발점부터 다릅니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;순수 수학 (Pure Math):&lt;/strong&gt; 공리(Axioms)와 논리적 구조가 기준입니다. &quot;정의된 규칙 안에서 모순 없이 성립하는가?&quot;를 탐구하며, 절대적인 엄밀성을 추구합니다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;물리학 (Physics):&lt;/strong&gt; 관측(Observation)과 자연 현상이 기준입니다. &quot;이것이 실재(Reality)와 대응되는가?&quot;가 중요하며, 현상을 설명하기 위해 수학적 도구를 가져다 씁니다.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ddd; margin: 30px 0;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;2. 텐서 (Tensor)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;텐서는 두 학문의 관점 차이가 가장 극명하게 드러나는 개념입니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #0056b3; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Math: 다중 선형 사상 (Multilinear Map)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;수학자에게 텐서는 벡터 공간 $V$와 그 쌍대 공간 $V^*$ 사이의 함수입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;$$T: V^* \times \dots \times V^* \times V \times \dots \times V \to \mathbb{R}$$&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Coordinate-free (좌표계 무관)&lt;/strong&gt;. 기저(Basis)를 정하지 않아도 텐서 자체는 대수적으로 존재합니다. 성분은 나중에 기저를 선택했을 때 나타나는 그림자일 뿐입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #d9534f; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Physics: 좌표 변환의 불변량 (Transformation Rule)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;물리학자에게 텐서는 좌표계가 바뀔 때($x \to x'$) 특정 규칙에 따라 변환되는 물리량입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;$$T'^{\mu\nu} = \frac{\partial x'^\mu}{\partial x^\alpha} \frac{\partial x'^\nu}{\partial x^\beta} T^{\alpha\beta}$$&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Invariance (불변성)&lt;/strong&gt;. &quot;좌표를 돌려도 물리 법칙이 깨지지 않는가?&quot;가 중요합니다. 응력(Stress)이나 전자기장과 같은 물리적 실체를 기술합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ddd; margin: 30px 0;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;3. 군론 (Group Theory)&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #0056b3; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Math: 대수적 구조의 탐구 (Structure)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;집합 $G$와 연산이 4가지 공리(닫힘, 결합법칙, 항등원, 역원)를 만족하면 군입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Classification (분류)&lt;/strong&gt;. 유한 단순군의 분류처럼, 추상적인 구조 그 자체를 연구합니다. 대상이 정수이든 행렬이든 구조가 같으면 같은 것(Isomorphic)으로 취급합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #d9534f; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Physics: 대칭성과 보존 법칙 (Symmetry)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;시스템을 변환시켰을 때 물리 법칙이 변하지 않는 성질, 즉 '대칭성'을 기술하는 언어입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Noether's Theorem (뇌터 정리)&lt;/strong&gt;. 대칭성은 곧 보존 법칙을 의미합니다. (예: 시간 대칭 $\to$ 에너지 보존, 공간 회전 대칭 $\to$ 각운동량 보존)&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ddd; margin: 30px 0;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;4. 힐베르트 공간 (Hilbert Space)&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #0056b3; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Math: 완비 내적 공간 (Complete Inner Product Space)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;거리와 각도가 정의되며, 극한을 취했을 때 그 극한값이 공간 밖으로 빠져나가지 않는(Complete) 무한 차원 공간입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Convergence (수렴성)&lt;/strong&gt;. 무한 급수가 수렴하는지, 해가 존재하는지를 따지는 해석학적 엄밀함이 중요합니다 ($L^2$ 공간 등).&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; padding: 15px; border-left: 4px solid #d9534f; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0;&quot;&gt;Physics: 양자 상태의 공간 (Quantum State Space)&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;관측 가능한 양자 상태(파동함수)들이 거주하는 공간입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;핵심:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Superposition &amp; Probability (중첩과 확률)&lt;/strong&gt;. 상태를 더할 수 있다는 점(벡터 공간)은 양자 중첩을 설명하며, 공간의 완비성은 확률 보존(총합 1)을 수학적으로 보장합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;border: 0; height: 1px; background: #ddd; margin: 30px 0;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;요약 (Summary)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;table style=&quot;width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 10px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;thead&gt;
            &lt;tr style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;&quot;&gt;
                &lt;th style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;개념&lt;/th&gt;
                &lt;th style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;순수 수학 (Pure Math)&lt;/th&gt;
                &lt;th style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;물리학 (Physics)&lt;/th&gt;
            &lt;/tr&gt;
        &lt;/thead&gt;
        &lt;tbody&gt;
            &lt;tr&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Tensor&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;다중 선형 사상 (기저 무관)&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;좌표 변환 규칙을 따르는 물리량&lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;/tr&gt;
            &lt;tr&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Group&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;공리를 만족하는 대수적 구조&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;대칭성과 보존 법칙&lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;/tr&gt;
            &lt;tr&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Hilbert Space&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;함수 해석학의 완비 내적 공간&lt;/td&gt;
                &lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ddd; padding: 10px;&quot;&gt;양자 역학의 상태 공간&lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;/tr&gt;
        &lt;/tbody&gt;
    &lt;/table&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; font-style: italic; color: #777;&quot;&gt;이 글은 수학적 정의와 물리적 직관 사이의 연결 고리를 이해하기 위해 작성되었습니다.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Linear Algebra</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/112</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/112#entry112comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Dec 2025 18:17:12 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[Rudin] 251222 학습노트 (Chap 2)</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/111</link>
      <description>&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: 'Noto Sans KR', sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; color: #333;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; padding: 20px; border-left: 5px solid #0056b3; margin-bottom: 30px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1 style=&quot;margin: 0; font-size: 24px; color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;Baby Rudin 독학 노트: Ch.2 Basic Topology (Compact Set &amp; 오답노트)&lt;/h1&gt;
        &lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 10px; color: #666;&quot;&gt;Principles of Mathematical Analysis (Rudin) 1~2장 학습 점검 및 심화 정리&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;본 포스팅은 &lt;b&gt;Principles of Mathematical Analysis (일명 Baby Rudin)&lt;/b&gt;를 독학하며 작성한 학습 노트의 내용을 바탕으로, 개념이 모호했던 &lt;b&gt;Compact Set(콤팩트 집합)&lt;/b&gt; 파트를 보강하고, 오개념을 수정한 오답 노트입니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 30px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #eee;&quot; /&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #333; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 40px;&quot;&gt;1. Compact Set (콤팩트 집합) 핵심 정리&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;노트 마지막 부분인 2.31부터 2.42까지의 내용을 정리합니다. [cite_start]해석학에서 가장 중요하고 추상적인 개념인 만큼 정확한 정의가 필수적입니다[cite: 522].&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #eef6fc; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #004085;&quot;&gt;2.31 Definition: Open Cover (열린 덮개)&lt;/h3&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;거리 공간 $X$의 부분집합 $E$가 있을 때, 어떤 열린 집합들의 모임 $\{G_\alpha\}$가 $E \subset \bigcup_\alpha G_\alpha$를 만족하면, $\{G_\alpha\}$를 $E$의 &lt;b&gt;Open cover&lt;/b&gt;라고 합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #fff3cd; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin-bottom: 20px; border: 1px solid #ffeeba;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #856404;&quot;&gt;2.32 Definition: Compact (콤팩트) ★&lt;/h3&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;집합 $K$의 &lt;b&gt;&quot;모든&quot;&lt;/b&gt; 열린 덮개(Open cover)가 &lt;b&gt;&quot;유한한&quot;&lt;/b&gt; 부분 덮개(Finite subcover)를 가질 때, $K$를 &lt;b&gt;Compact&lt;/b&gt;하다고 합니다.&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 0.9em; color: #666;&quot;&gt;  &lt;i&gt;의미: 무한히 많은 열린 집합으로 덮더라도, 그중 유한 개만으로도 충분히 덮을 수 있다는 뜻. (무한을 유한으로 다루는 도구)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.33 Compactness is Intrinsic:&lt;/b&gt; $K \subset Y \subset X$일 때, $K$가 $X$에서 콤팩트인 것과 $Y$에서 콤팩트인 것은 동치입니다. (전체 공간에 의존하지 않는 절대적 성질)&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.34 Theorem:&lt;/b&gt; 콤팩트 집합의 부분집합들은 모두 &lt;b&gt;Closed(닫힌 집합)&lt;/b&gt;입니다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.35 Theorem:&lt;/b&gt; 콤팩트 집합 $K$의 닫힌 부분집합 $F$는 &lt;b&gt;Compact&lt;/b&gt;입니다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.36 Finite Intersection Property:&lt;/b&gt; 콤팩트 집합 내의 닫힌 집합들이 유한 교차 성질을 가지면, 전체 교집합도 공집합이 아닙니다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.38 &amp; 2.40 k-Cells:&lt;/b&gt; $\mathbb{R}^k$ 상의 &lt;b&gt;k-cell&lt;/b&gt;(폐구간 직육면체)은 &lt;b&gt;Compact&lt;/b&gt;입니다.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 2px solid #dc3545; padding: 20px; border-radius: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #dc3545;&quot;&gt;2.41 Theorem: Heine-Borel Theorem (하이네-보렐 정리)&lt;/h3&gt;
        [cite_start]&lt;p&gt;유클리드 공간 $\mathbb{R}^k$의 부분집합 $E$에 대하여 다음 두 명제는 동치입니다[cite: 522].&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E$ is &lt;b&gt;Closed and Bounded&lt;/b&gt; (닫혀있고 유계이다).&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E$ is &lt;b&gt;Compact&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
        &lt;p style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;※ 중요:&lt;/b&gt; 추상적인 'Compact' 개념을 우리가 직관적으로 아는 'Closed &amp; Bounded'로 판별할 수 있게 해주는 강력한 정리입니다. (단, $\mathbb{R}^k$에서만 성립)&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #eee;&quot; /&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #333; padding-bottom: 10px;&quot;&gt;2. 오답 노트 (Correction Log)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;학습 노트 작성 중 발생한 오개념이나 모호한 부분을 교정합니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        [cite_start]&lt;h3 style=&quot;font-size: 18px; border-left: 4px solid #28a745; padding-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;① Dedekind Cuts (데데킨트 절단) [cite: 282, 291]&lt;/h3&gt;
        &lt;blockquote style=&quot;background: #f1f1f1; padding: 10px; border-left: 3px solid #ccc; margin: 10px 0;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;i&gt;User Note: &quot;유리수를 특정 지점에서 잘라서 끊임없이 근사해서 새로운 수에 접근시킬 계획인가?&quot;&lt;/i&gt;
        &lt;/blockquote&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;Correction:&lt;/b&gt; '근사(Approximation)'가 아니라 &lt;b&gt;'정의(Definition)'&lt;/b&gt; 그 자체입니다. $\sqrt{2}$로 다가가는 것이 아니라, $p^2 &lt; 2$인 유리수 집합(Cut) 그 덩어리를 $\sqrt{2}$라는 실수로 &lt;b&gt;정의&lt;/b&gt;해버리는 방식입니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        [cite_start]&lt;h3 style=&quot;font-size: 18px; border-left: 4px solid #28a745; padding-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;② Sup/Inf의 포함 관계 [cite: 512, 518]&lt;/h3&gt;
        &lt;blockquote style=&quot;background: #f1f1f1; padding: 10px; border-left: 3px solid #ccc; margin: 10px 0;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;i&gt;User Note: &quot;half-closed도 되지 않다? inf는 아니지만.&quot;&lt;/i&gt;
        &lt;/blockquote&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;&lt;b&gt;Correction:&lt;/b&gt; 집합 $E$가 유계라면 $\sup E$와 $\inf E$는 실수 상에 반드시 존재합니다. 하지만 그것이 &lt;b&gt;집합 $E$ 안에 포함되느냐&lt;/b&gt;는 $E$가 &lt;b&gt;Closed&lt;/b&gt;일 때만 보장됩니다. (예: $(0, 1)$의 $\sup$은 1이지만 $1 \notin (0, 1)$)&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #eee;&quot; /&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #333; padding-bottom: 10px;&quot;&gt;3. Note 확장: 차원과 대수 구조&lt;/h2&gt;
    [cite_start]&lt;p&gt;노트 여백에 적혀있던 &quot;11차원, 4원수, 2차원 연산&quot;에 대한 심화 해설입니다[cite: 453, 462].&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;ul style=&quot;list-style-type: none; padding: 0;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;strong style=&quot;font-size: 1.1em;&quot;&gt;Q. 2차원 이상의 공간($\mathbb{R}^k$)에서 곱셈은?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
            일반적인 벡터 공간 $\mathbb{R}^k$에서는 벡터 간의 곱셈이 정의되지 않습니다. 하지만 $\mathbb{R}^2$에 특수한 곱셈 규칙($(a,b) \times (c,d) = \dots$)을 부여하여 &lt;b&gt;복소평면($\mathbb{C}$)&lt;/b&gt;이라는 '체(Field)'를 만듭니다.
        &lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;strong style=&quot;font-size: 1.1em;&quot;&gt;Q. [cite_start]4원수(Quaternions, $\mathbb{H}$)란? [cite: 455]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
            $\mathbb{R}^4$ 공간에 곱셈 구조를 부여한 것입니다. 하지만 치명적인 대가가 따르는데, 바로 &lt;b&gt;&quot;교환법칙이 성립하지 않는다($ij \neq ji$)&quot;&lt;/b&gt;는 점입니다. 따라서 Field가 아닌 Division Ring(나눗셈 환)으로 분류됩니다.
        &lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li style=&quot;margin-bottom: 20px;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;strong style=&quot;font-size: 1.1em;&quot;&gt;Q. [cite_start]11차원 등의 고차원 연산? [cite: 457]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
            수학적으로 실수 위에서 '거리(크기)를 보존하며 나눗셈이 가능한 구조'는 &lt;b&gt;1, 2, 4, 8차원&lt;/b&gt;($\mathbb{R}, \mathbb{C}, \mathbb{H}, \mathbb{O}$)까지만 존재한다는 것이 증명되어 있습니다 (Hurwitz's Theorem). 11차원 등에서는 우리가 아는 사칙연산 체계를 완벽히 유지할 수 없습니다.
        &lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; margin-top: 50px; padding: 20px; background-color: #f8f9fa; border-radius: 10px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;p style=&quot;font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em;&quot;&gt;&quot;The only way to learn mathematics is to do mathematics.&quot; - Paul Halmos&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;다음 단계는 &lt;b&gt;Chapter 3. Numerical Sequences and Series&lt;/b&gt;입니다. 수열의 극한과 코시 수열로 이어집니다!&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Analysis</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/111</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/111#entry111comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Dec 2025 18:04:29 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[W. Rudin] 1.12-2</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/110</link>
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&lt;div class=&quot;rudin-note&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h1&gt;Rudin PMA: Ch 1.12 ~ Ch 2. Basic Topology 정리&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Walter Rudin의 &lt;i&gt;Principles of Mathematical Analysis&lt;/i&gt; 중, 순서체의 성질부터 위상수학의 기초(Point Set Topology)까지의 내용을 정리합니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h2&gt;Part 1. The Real and Complex Fields (Continued)&lt;/h2&gt;
    
    &lt;h3&gt;1.12 ~ 1.18 Ordered Fields (순서체의 성질)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;실수체 $\mathbb{R}$은 순서체(Ordered Field)입니다. 순서 공리에 의해 다음과 같은 산술적 성질들이 유도됩니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;주요 성질:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$x &gt; 0$ 이면 $-x &lt; 0$ 이다.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$x &gt; 0$ 이고 $y &lt; z$ 이면 $xy &lt; xz$ 이다.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$x \neq 0$ 이면 $x^2 &gt; 0$ 이다. (따라서 $1 &gt; 0$)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$0 &lt; x &lt; y$ 이면 $0 &lt; 1/y &lt; 1/x$ 이다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;1.36 Euclidean Spaces (유클리드 공간 $\mathbb{R}^k$)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;$\mathbb{R}^k$는 모든 $k$-tuples $\mathbf{x} = (x_1, \dots, x_k)$의 집합으로 정의되며, 벡터 공간의 성질을 가집니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Definition (Inner Product &amp; Norm):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y} \in \mathbb{R}^k$에 대하여,
        $$ \mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y} = \sum_{i=1}^k x_i y_i, \quad |\mathbf{x}| = (\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{x})^{1/2} $$
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Theorem 1.37 (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality &amp; Triangle Inequality):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$|\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y}| \le |\mathbf{x}| |\mathbf{y}|$ (등호 성립 조건: 종속 관계일 때)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$|\mathbf{x} + \mathbf{y}| \le |\mathbf{x}| + |\mathbf{y}|$&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$|\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{z}| \le |\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{y}| + |\mathbf{y} - \mathbf{z}|$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;* 이 부등식들은 이후 Metric Space 거리 개념의 기초가 됩니다.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr&gt;

    &lt;h2&gt;Part 2. Basic Topology (기초 위상수학)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;해석학 논증의 언어가 되는 집합론적 위상수학 개념들입니다. (Metric Space 중심)&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;2.1 ~ 2.14 Finite, Countable, and Uncountable Sets&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Countable (가산 집합):&lt;/strong&gt; 집합 $A$가 자연수 집합 $J$ ($=\mathbb{N}$)와 일대일 대응(1-1 correspondence)이 가능하면 가산 집합이라 한다.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Key Theorems:&lt;/strong&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;가산 집합들의 가산 합집합(Countable union)은 가산 집합이다. (Thm 2.12)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;유리수 집합 $\mathbb{Q}$는 가산 집합이다.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.14:&lt;/strong&gt; 구간 $(0, 1)$을 포함한 실수 집합 $\mathbb{R}$은 &lt;strong&gt;비가산 집합(Uncountable)&lt;/strong&gt;이다. (Cantor's Diagonal Process)&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;2.15 ~ 2.30 Metric Spaces (거리 공간)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;거리 함수 $d(p, q)$가 정의된 집합 $X$를 거리 공간이라 합니다. $\mathbb{R}^k$는 $d(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) = |\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{y}|$인 거리 공간입니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Topological Definitions:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $X$를 거리 공간이라 할 때:
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Neighborhood (근방) $N_r(p)$:&lt;/strong&gt; $d(p, q) &lt; r$ 인 모든 $q$의 집합.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Limit point (극한점):&lt;/strong&gt; $p$의 모든 근방이 $p$가 아닌 $E$의 점을 포함할 때. (즉, $p$ 주변에 $E$의 점이 무수히 많음)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Isolated point (고립점):&lt;/strong&gt; $E$의 원소이지만 극한점은 아닌 점.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Closed (닫힌 집합):&lt;/strong&gt; 모든 극한점을 포함하는 집합 ($E' \subset E$).&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Open (열린 집합):&lt;/strong&gt; 모든 점이 내점(interior point)인 집합.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Closure (폐포) $\bar{E}$:&lt;/strong&gt; $E \cup E'$. 항상 닫힌 집합이다.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
    
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.23 &amp; 2.24:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;열린 집합의 합집합은 열린 집합이다. (무한 합집합 가능)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;닫힌 집합의 교집합은 닫힌 집합이다. (무한 교집합 가능)&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;열린 집합의 여집합은 닫힌 집합&lt;/strong&gt;이며, 그 역도 성립한다 ($E$ open $\iff E^c$ closed).&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;2.31 ~ 2.42 Compact Sets (콤팩트 집합)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Chapter 2의 핵심 개념입니다. 유한(Finite)의 성질을 무한으로 확장한 개념으로 이해할 수 있습니다.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Compact Definition:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        집합 $K$의 모든 &lt;em&gt;Open Cover&lt;/em&gt;(열린 덮개)가 &lt;em&gt;Finite Subcover&lt;/em&gt;(유한 부분 덮개)를 가질 때, $K$를 &lt;strong&gt;Compact&lt;/strong&gt;하다고 한다.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Compactness Properties:&lt;/strong&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.34:&lt;/strong&gt; 콤팩트 집합의 무한 부분집합은 그 콤팩트 집합 내에 극한점을 가진다.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.35:&lt;/strong&gt; 거리 공간에서 &lt;strong&gt;콤팩트 집합은 항상 닫혀있고 유계(Closed and Bounded)&lt;/strong&gt;이다.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;역은 일반적으로 성립하지 않으나, $\mathbb{R}^k$에서는 성립한다. &lt;strong&gt;(Heine-Borel Theorem)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.41 (Heine-Borel Theorem for $\mathbb{R}^k$):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        유클리드 공간 $\mathbb{R}^k$의 부분집합 $E$에 대해 다음은 동치이다.
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E$ is closed and bounded.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E$ is compact.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E$의 모든 무한 부분집합은 $E$ 안에 극한점을 가진다. (Weierstrass Theorem 관련)&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;2.43 ~ 2.44 Perfect Sets (완전 집합)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Definition:&lt;/strong&gt; $P$가 닫힌 집합(closed)이면서, $P$의 모든 점이 극한점일 때 ($P = P'$), $P$를 &lt;strong&gt;Perfect set&lt;/strong&gt;이라 한다.
    &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Cantor Set:&lt;/strong&gt; 비가산(Uncountable)이면서, 측도(Measure)가 0이고, 완전 집합인 칸토어 집합이 존재한다.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h3&gt;2.45 ~ 2.47 Connected Sets (연결 집합)&lt;/h3&gt;
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-def&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Definition:&lt;/strong&gt; 두 분리된(separated) 비공허(non-empty) 열린 집합 $A, B$의 합집합으로 표현될 수 &lt;strong&gt;없을&lt;/strong&gt; 때, $E$는 &lt;strong&gt;Connected&lt;/strong&gt; 되었다고 한다.
    &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;div class=&quot;box-thm&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Theorem 2.47:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        실수 집합 $\mathbb{R}$의 부분집합 $E$가 연결 집합일 필요충분조건은 &lt;strong&gt;$x, y \in E$이고 $x &lt; z &lt; y$이면 $z \in E$&lt;/strong&gt;인 것이다. (즉, 구간(Interval) 형태여야 한다.)
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;text-align: center; color: #777;&quot;&gt;Reference: W. Rudin, &lt;i&gt;Principles of Mathematical Analysis&lt;/i&gt;, 3rd Edition.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Analysis</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/110</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/110#entry110comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Mon, 15 Dec 2025 13:35:29 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[Axler] Orthonormal Basis and Shur's Theorem</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/109</link>
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    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Orthonormal Bases (Part 3)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;color: #777; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;Based on &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt; by Sheldon Axler&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This post covers the concept of Orthonormal Bases, the Gram-Schmidt procedure, and important theorems like Schur's Theorem and the Riesz Representation Theorem.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(Assumption: $V$ denotes an inner product space over $F$, where $F$ is $\mathbf{R}$ or $\mathbf{C}$.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;1. Orthonormal Lists&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #0056b3; border-left: 5px solid #0056b3; padding: 20px; background-color: #f9fbff; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;Definition&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;A list of vectors in $V$ is called &lt;strong&gt;orthonormal&lt;/strong&gt; if:&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;Each vector has norm 1.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;Each vector is orthogonal to all other vectors in the list.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Mathematically, a list $e_1, \dots, e_m$ is orthonormal if:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ \langle e_j, e_k \rangle = \begin{cases} 1 &amp; \text{if } j = k \\ 0 &amp; \text{if } j \ne k \end{cases} $$
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Key Properties&lt;/h4&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;1. Norm of a Linear Combination:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
    If $e_1, \dots, e_m$ is an orthonormal list, then for any scalars $a_1, \dots, a_m$:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ \| a_1 e_1 + \dots + a_m e_m \|^2 = |a_1|^2 + \dots + |a_m|^2 $$
    
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. Linear Independence:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
    Every orthonormal list of vectors is linearly independent.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; font-size: 0.95em; color: #555;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Proof Idea:&lt;/strong&gt; If $\sum a_j e_j = 0$, then $\|\sum a_j e_j\|^2 = \sum |a_j|^2 = 0$, which implies all coefficients $a_j$ must be 0.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;2. Orthonormal Bases&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;orthonormal basis&lt;/strong&gt; of $V$ is an orthonormal list of vectors that is also a basis of $V$.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #28a745; border-left: 5px solid #28a745; padding: 20px; background-color: #f6fff8; border-radius: 4px; margin-top: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #28a745;&quot;&gt;Why are they important?&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Orthonormal bases make finding coefficients in a linear combination extremely simple.&lt;/p&gt;
        
        &lt;p&gt;If $e_1, \dots, e_n$ is an orthonormal basis of $V$ and $v \in V$, then:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ v = \langle v, e_1 \rangle e_1 + \dots + \langle v, e_n \rangle e_n $$
        
        &lt;p&gt;And the norm of $v$ is given by:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ \|v\|^2 = |\langle v, e_1 \rangle|^2 + \dots + |\langle v, e_n \rangle|^2 $$
    &lt;/div&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This means the coefficient of each basis vector is simply the inner product of the vector $v$ with that basis vector.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;3. Gram-Schmidt Procedure&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This is a standard algorithm for turning any linearly independent list into an orthonormal list with the same span.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Input:&lt;/strong&gt; A linearly independent list $v_1, \dots, v_m$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Output:&lt;/strong&gt; An orthonormal list $e_1, \dots, e_m$ such that:
            $$ \operatorname{span}(v_1, \dots, v_j) = \operatorname{span}(e_1, \dots, e_j) \quad \text{for } j=1, \dots, m $$
        &lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #444;&quot;&gt;Existence Theorems&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Using the Gram-Schmidt procedure, we can prove:&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;ol&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Every finite-dimensional inner product space has an orthonormal basis.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Every orthonormal list of vectors in $V$ can be extended to an orthonormal basis of $V$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ol&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;4. Advanced Theorems&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Schur's Theorem&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Suppose $V$ is a finite-dimensional &lt;strong&gt;complex&lt;/strong&gt; inner product space and $T \in \mathcal{L}(V)$. Then $T$ has an upper-triangular matrix with respect to some orthonormal basis of $V$.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Riesz Representation Theorem&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Suppose $V$ is finite-dimensional. Then for every linear functional $\varphi$ on $V$ (a linear map from $V$ to $F$), there exists a unique vector $u \in V$ such that:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ \varphi(w) = \langle w, u \rangle $$
    &lt;p&gt;for every $w \in V$.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;This concludes the video on orthonormal bases.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Linear Algebra</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/109</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/109#entry109comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Sat, 13 Dec 2025 16:50:10 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[Axler] Inner Product and Norm</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/108</link>
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    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Inner Products and Norms (Part 1)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;color: #777; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;Based on &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt; by Sheldon Axler&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;Hello, I'm Sheldon Axler, the author of &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt;. This video discusses part one of the section titled &quot;Inner Products and Norms.&quot; In this video, we will focus on inner products.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;1. Standard Notation &amp; Motivation&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;Let's quickly recall our standard notation. $F$ &lt;strong&gt;denotes&lt;/strong&gt; either the scalar field $\mathbf{R}$ of real numbers or the scalar field $\mathbf{C}$ of complex numbers. We &lt;strong&gt;also let $V$ denote&lt;/strong&gt; a vector space over $F$.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;To motivate the definition of the inner product, we'll start by considering the dot product on $\mathbf{R}^n$. &lt;strong&gt;Specifically,&lt;/strong&gt; we'll begin &lt;strong&gt;by examining the case in $\mathbf{R}^2$&lt;/strong&gt;. We have a vector with coordinates $(x_1, x_2)$, and the length of this vector is the square root of the sum of the squares of the coordinates: $\sqrt{x_1^2 + x_2^2}$.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;If we move from $\mathbf{R}^2$ to $\mathbf{R}^n$, looking at a vector $\mathbf{x} = (x_1, \dots, x_n)$, we define the &lt;strong&gt;norm&lt;/strong&gt; of $\mathbf{x}$, denoted $\|\mathbf{x}\|$, to be the square root of the sum of the squares of its components:&lt;/p&gt;
    
    $$ \|\mathbf{x}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{k=1}^{n} x_k^2} $$
    
    &lt;p&gt;However, &lt;strong&gt;linearity is not immediately apparent in this formula.&lt;/strong&gt; To introduce linearity, we define the &lt;strong&gt;dot product&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin: 20px 0;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Dot Product in $\mathbf{R}^n$:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        For vectors $\mathbf{x}$ and $\mathbf{y}$ in $\mathbf{R}^n$, the dot product is defined as:
        $$ \mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y} = \sum_{k=1}^{n} x_k y_k $$
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;We see immediately that $\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{x} = \|\mathbf{x}\|^2$. Now let's look at some key properties of the dot product:&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;ol&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;For any vector $\mathbf{x} \in \mathbf{R}^n$, $\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{x} \ge 0$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;$\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{x} = 0$ if and only if $\mathbf{x} = \mathbf{0}$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;If we fix a vector $\mathbf{y} \in \mathbf{R}^n$, then the map $\mathbf{x} \mapsto \mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y}$ is linear.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;For any vectors $\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y} \in \mathbf{R}^n$, $\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y} = \mathbf{y} \cdot \mathbf{x}$ (Commutativity).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ol&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;2. The Complex Case&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;The properties above form the basis for the abstract definition of an inner product. This works perfectly for real vector spaces. For complex vector spaces, however, we need to consider &lt;strong&gt;an additional factor&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;For a vector $\mathbf{z} = (z_1, \dots, z_n)$ in $\mathbf{C}^n$, we define its norm $\|\mathbf{z}\|$ using &lt;strong&gt;magnitudes&lt;/strong&gt;:&lt;/p&gt;
    
    $$ \|\mathbf{z}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{k=1}^{n} |z_k|^2} $$
    
    &lt;p&gt;To recover the relationship $\|\mathbf{z}\|^2 = \langle \mathbf{z}, \mathbf{z} \rangle$, the inner product for vectors $\mathbf{w}$ and $\mathbf{z}$ in $\mathbf{C}^n$ must be defined using the complex conjugate:&lt;/p&gt;
    
    $$ \langle \mathbf{w}, \mathbf{z} \rangle = \sum_{k=1}^{n} w_k \overline{z_k} $$

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;3. Definition of Inner Product&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;We are now ready to define an inner product generally for vector spaces over either $\mathbf{R}$ or $\mathbf{C}$.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #0056b3; border-left: 5px solid #0056b3; padding: 20px; background-color: #f9fbff; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;Definition: Inner Product&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;An &lt;strong&gt;inner product&lt;/strong&gt; on a vector space $V$ is a function that takes each ordered pair of vectors $(\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v})$ in $V$ to a scalar, denoted $\langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle$, with the following properties:&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Non-negativity:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{v} \rangle \ge 0$ for all $\mathbf{v} \in V$.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Definiteness:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{v} \rangle = 0$ if and only if $\mathbf{v} = \mathbf{0}$.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additivity in the first argument:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{u}_1 + \mathbf{u}_2, \mathbf{v} \rangle = \langle \mathbf{u}_1, \mathbf{v} \rangle + \langle \mathbf{u}_2, \mathbf{v} \rangle$.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Homogeneity in the first argument:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \lambda \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle = \lambda \langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle$ for all $\lambda \in F$.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conjugate Symmetry:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle = \overline{\langle \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{u} \rangle}$ for all $\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \in V$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;p style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; font-size: 0.9em; color: #666;&quot;&gt;
        * Note: An &lt;strong&gt;inner product space&lt;/strong&gt; is a vector space $V$ together with a specific inner product defined on it.
    &lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 40px;&quot;&gt;4. Examples&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;ol&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Euclidean Inner Product on $F^n$:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $\langle \mathbf{w}, \mathbf{z} \rangle = \sum_{k=1}^{n} w_k \overline{z_k}$.&lt;/li&gt;
        
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Weighted Euclidean Inner Product:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        Choose positive constants $c_1, \dots, c_n$. Define $\langle \mathbf{w}, \mathbf{z} \rangle = \sum_{k=1}^{n} c_k w_k \overline{z_k}$.&lt;/li&gt;
        
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inner Product on $C([-1, 1], \mathbf{R})$:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $\langle f, g \rangle = \int_{-1}^{1} f(x)g(x) \, dx$.&lt;/li&gt;
        
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Inner Product on $P(\mathbf{R})$:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $\langle p, q \rangle = \int_{0}^{\infty} p(x)q(x) e^{-x} \, dx$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ol&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 40px;&quot;&gt;5. Basic Properties&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;Based on the definition, we can derive the following properties:&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Linearity in the first argument:&lt;/strong&gt; For fixed $\mathbf{u}$, the map $\mathbf{v} \mapsto \langle \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{u} \rangle$ is linear.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Interaction with zero:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{0}, \mathbf{v} \rangle = 0$ and $\langle \mathbf{v}, \mathbf{0} \rangle = 0$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Additivity in the second argument:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}_1 + \mathbf{v}_2 \rangle = \langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}_1 \rangle + \langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}_2 \rangle$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conjugate Homogeneity in the second argument:&lt;/strong&gt; $\langle \mathbf{u}, \lambda \mathbf{v} \rangle = \overline{\lambda} \langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;(Note: In the real case where $F = \mathbf{R}$, the inner product is linear in the second argument as well.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;This concludes part one of the video on inner products and norms.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
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    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Inner Products and Norms (Part 2)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;color: #777; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;Based on &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt; by Sheldon Axler&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This discussion covers part two of the section on Inner Products and Norms. Throughout this post, we assume $V$ denotes an inner product space.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3; margin-top: 40px;&quot;&gt;1. Definition of Norm&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #0056b3; border-left: 5px solid #0056b3; padding: 20px; background-color: #f9fbff; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;Definition&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;For a vector $v \in V$, the &lt;strong&gt;norm&lt;/strong&gt; of $v$, denoted $\|v\|$, is defined as:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ \|v\| = \sqrt{\langle v, v \rangle} $$
    &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Since $\langle v, v \rangle \ge 0$ by definition of the inner product, this square root is always valid.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Examples&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;ol&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Euclidean Norm on $\mathbf{F}^n$:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        For a vector $z = (z_1, \ldots, z_n) \in \mathbf{F}^n$, using the standard inner product:
        $$ \|z\| = \sqrt{|z_1|^2 + \cdots + |z_n|^2} $$
        (Unless specified otherwise, $\mathbf{F}^n$ is assumed to have this Euclidean norm.)&lt;/li&gt;
        
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Norm on Function Space:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        For continuous real-valued functions on $[-1, 1]$ with $\langle f, g \rangle = \int_{-1}^{1} f(x)g(x) \, dx$:
        $$ \|f\| = \sqrt{\int_{-1}^{1} (f(x))^2 \, dx} $$&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ol&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;2. Basic Properties of Norms&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Positivity:&lt;/strong&gt; $\|v\| = 0$ if and only if $v = 0$. (This follows directly from the definiteness of the inner product.)&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Homogeneity:&lt;/strong&gt; For any scalar $\lambda \in \mathbf{F}$, $\|\lambda v\| = |\lambda| \, \|v\|$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; font-size: 0.95em;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Proof of Homogeneity:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $$ \|\lambda v\|^2 = \langle \lambda v, \lambda v \rangle = \lambda \langle v, \lambda v \rangle = \lambda \overline{\lambda} \langle v, v \rangle = |\lambda|^2 \|v\|^2 $$
        Taking the square root of both sides gives $\|\lambda v\| = |\lambda| \, \|v\|$.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;3. Orthogonality &amp; The Pythagorean Theorem&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;Two vectors $u, v \in V$ are called &lt;strong&gt;orthogonal&lt;/strong&gt; if $\langle u, v \rangle = 0$. This generalizes the geometric concept of perpendicularity.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;The zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;$\mathbf{0}$ is the only vector orthogonal to itself.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #28a745; border-left: 5px solid #28a745; padding: 20px; background-color: #f6fff8; border-radius: 4px; margin-top: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #28a745;&quot;&gt;Pythagorean Theorem&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;If $u$ and $v$ are orthogonal vectors in $V$, then:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ \|u + v\|^2 = \|u\|^2 + \|v\|^2 $$
        
        &lt;p style=&quot;border-top: 1px dashed #28a745; padding-top: 10px; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;
            &lt;strong&gt;Proof:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
            $\|u + v\|^2 = \langle u + v, u + v \rangle = \langle u, u \rangle + \langle u, v \rangle + \langle v, u \rangle + \langle v, v \rangle$&lt;br&gt;
            Since $u, v$ are orthogonal, $\langle u, v \rangle = 0$ (and thus $\langle v, u \rangle = 0$).&lt;br&gt;
            Therefore, $\|u + v\|^2 = \|u\|^2 + 0 + 0 + \|v\|^2$.
        &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;4. Key Inequalities&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #444;&quot;&gt;Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;For any vectors $u, v \in V$:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ |\langle u, v \rangle| \le \|u\| \, \|v\| $$
    &lt;p&gt;Equality holds if and only if one vector is a scalar multiple of the other.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Applications:&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In $\mathbf{R}^n$:&lt;/strong&gt; $( \sum u_k v_k )^2 \le ( \sum u_k^2 ) ( \sum v_k^2 )$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;In Integrals:&lt;/strong&gt; $( \int fg )^2 \le ( \int f^2 ) ( \int g^2 )$&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #444; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Triangle Inequality&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;For any vectors $u, v \in V$:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ \|u + v\| \le \|u\| + \|v\| $$
    &lt;p&gt;Equality holds if and only if one vector is a non-negative real multiple of the other.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; font-size: 0.95em;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Proof (using Cauchy-Schwarz):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        $$ \begin{aligned} \|u + v\|^2 &amp;= \langle u + v, u + v \rangle \\ &amp;= \|u\|^2 + \langle u, v \rangle + \langle v, u \rangle + \|v\|^2 \\ &amp;= \|u\|^2 + 2\operatorname{Re}\langle u, v \rangle + \|v\|^2 \end{aligned} $$
        Since $\operatorname{Re}\langle u, v \rangle \le |\langle u, v \rangle| \le \|u\|\|v\|$ (by Cauchy-Schwarz):
        $$ \|u + v\|^2 \le \|u\|^2 + 2\|u\|\|v\| + \|v\|^2 = (\|u\| + \|v\|)^2 $$
        Taking square roots yields the result.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;5. Parallelogram Identity&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;For any vectors $u, v \in V$:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ \|u + v\|^2 + \|u - v\|^2 = 2\|u\|^2 + 2\|v\|^2 $$
    
    &lt;p&gt;This identity reflects the geometry of a parallelogram: the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals ($u+v$ and $u-v$) equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the four sides.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; font-size: 0.95em;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Proof:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        Expand $\|u + v\|^2 + \|u - v\|^2$:
        $$ (\|u\|^2 + \langle u, v \rangle + \langle v, u \rangle + \|v\|^2) + (\|u\|^2 - \langle u, v \rangle - \langle v, u \rangle + \|v\|^2) $$
        The cross terms cancel out, leaving $2\|u\|^2 + 2\|v\|^2$.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;This concludes part two on inner products.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Linear Algebra</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/108</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/108#entry108comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Sat, 13 Dec 2025 16:45:01 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[Axler] Eigenvalues, Invariant Subspaces, Diagonal Matrix</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/107</link>
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: 'Noto Sans KR', sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; color: #333; max-width: 800px; margin: 0 auto;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, and Invariant Subspaces (Part 2 &amp; 3)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;color: #777; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;Based on &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This post covers the definition of the matrix of an operator, the properties of upper triangular matrices, and the concept of eigenspaces.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;1. The Matrix of an Operator&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;Previously, defining the matrix of a linear map from one vector space to another required two bases. However, for an &lt;strong&gt;operator&lt;/strong&gt; (a linear map $T: V \to V$), we use a &lt;strong&gt;single basis&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #0056b3; border-left: 5px solid #0056b3; padding: 20px; background-color: #f9fbff; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;Definition&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Let $v_1, \dots, v_n$ be a basis of $V$. The matrix of the operator $T$ with respect to this basis is the $n \times n$ matrix determined by:&lt;/p&gt;
        $$ T(v_k) = A_{1,k}v_1 + \dots + A_{n,k}v_n $$
        &lt;p&gt;The coefficients of this linear combination form the $k$-th column of the matrix.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;ul style=&quot;margin-top: 20px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;It is computed using a &lt;strong&gt;single basis&lt;/strong&gt; of $V$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;It is always a &lt;strong&gt;square matrix&lt;/strong&gt; ($n \times n$).&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;2. Upper Triangular Matrix&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;A matrix is called &lt;strong&gt;upper triangular&lt;/strong&gt; if all entries below the diagonal are zero (i.e., $A_{j,k} = 0$ if $j &gt; k$).&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin: 20px 0;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Example Calculation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        Define $T \in \mathcal{L}(\mathbf{R}^3)$ by $T(x, y, z) = (2x + y, 5y + 3z, 8z)$.&lt;br&gt;
        Using the standard basis $(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)$:
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$T(1,0,0) = (2,0,0) \implies$ Col 1: $[2, 0, 0]^T$&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$T(0,1,0) = (1,5,0) \implies$ Col 2: $[1, 5, 0]^T$&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$T(0,0,1) = (0,3,8) \implies$ Col 3: $[0, 3, 8]^T$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
        The resulting matrix $\mathcal{M}(T)$ is:
        $$ \begin{bmatrix} 2 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 5 &amp; 3 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 8 \end{bmatrix} $$
        Since all entries below the diagonal are zero, this is upper triangular.
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #28a745; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Theorem: Conditions for Upper Triangular Matrix&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #28a745; border-left: 5px solid #28a745; padding: 20px; background-color: #f6fff8; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Let $T \in \mathcal{L}(V)$ and let $v_1, \dots, v_n$ be a basis for $V$. The following are equivalent:&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;The matrix of $T$ with respect to this basis is upper triangular.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$T(v_j) \in \operatorname{span}(v_1, \dots, v_j)$ for each $j = 1, \dots, n$.&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$\operatorname{span}(v_1, \dots, v_j)$ is invariant under $T$ for each $j = 1, \dots, n$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #28a745; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Theorem: Existence of Upper-Triangular Form&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;If $V$ is a finite-dimensional &lt;strong&gt;complex&lt;/strong&gt; vector space and $T \in \mathcal{L}(V)$, then there exists a basis of $V$ such that the matrix of $T$ is upper triangular.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 0.9em; color: #666;&quot;&gt;*(Note: This requires a complex vector space because operators on real vector spaces may not have eigenvalues.)*&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Connection to Eigenvalues:&lt;/strong&gt; If the matrix of $T$ is upper triangular, the eigenvalues of $T$ are exactly the entries on the diagonal. (In the example above, eigenvalues are 2, 5, and 8.)&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;3. Eigenspaces and Diagonal Matrices&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #444;&quot;&gt;Diagonal Matrix&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;A diagonal matrix is a square matrix where all entries off the diagonal are zero. (Every diagonal matrix is upper triangular.)&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ \begin{bmatrix} 8 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 5 &amp; 0 \\ 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 5 \end{bmatrix} $$
    &lt;p&gt;If an operator has a diagonal matrix with respect to some basis, the diagonal entries are its eigenvalues.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #444; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Eigenspaces&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;For $\lambda \in F$, the &lt;strong&gt;eigenspace&lt;/strong&gt; of $T$ corresponding to $\lambda$ is defined as:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ E(\lambda, T) = \operatorname{null}(T - \lambda I) $$
    &lt;p&gt;This subspace contains all eigenvectors corresponding to $\lambda$, plus the zero vector.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin: 20px 0;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Example:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        If $\mathcal{M}(T)$ with respect to $v_1, v_2, v_3$ is the diagonal matrix above (entries 8, 5, 5):
        &lt;ul&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E(8, T) = \operatorname{span}(v_1)$&lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$E(5, T) = \operatorname{span}(v_2, v_3)$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;color: #28a745; margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Theorem: Sum of Eigenspaces&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #28a745; border-left: 5px solid #28a745; padding: 20px; background-color: #f6fff8; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Let $V$ be finite-dimensional and let $\lambda_1, \dots, \lambda_m$ be distinct eigenvalues of $T$. Then:&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ol&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;The sum of the eigenspaces is a direct sum:
                $$ E(\lambda_1, T) + \dots + E(\lambda_m, T) $$
            &lt;/li&gt;
            &lt;li&gt;$\dim(E(\lambda_1, T)) + \dots + \dim(E(\lambda_m, T)) \le \dim V$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ol&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;This theorem implies that eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are linearly independent.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;This concludes the summary of Part 2 &amp; 3.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Linear Algebra</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/107</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/107#entry107comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Fri, 12 Dec 2025 20:11:11 +0900</pubDate>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>[Axler] The Existence of Eigenvalue</title>
      <link>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/106</link>
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-family: 'Noto Sans KR', sans-serif; line-height: 1.8; color: #333; max-width: 800px; margin: 0 auto; padding: 20px;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h2 style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid #555; padding-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 10px;&quot;&gt;Eigenvectors and Upper-Triangular Matrices (Part 1)&lt;/h2&gt;
    &lt;p style=&quot;color: #777; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;Based on &lt;em&gt;Linear Algebra Done Right&lt;/em&gt; by Sheldon Axler&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;This post covers the foundational concepts required to understand eigenvalues and eigenvectors, including operator polynomials, and presents the proof for the existence of eigenvalues over complex vector spaces.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;1. Notation and Terminology&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;$\mathbf{F}$&lt;/strong&gt; : Denotes either the real field $\mathbf{R}$ or the complex field $\mathbf{C}$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;$V$&lt;/strong&gt; : A vector space over $\mathbf{F}$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Operator&lt;/strong&gt; : A linear map from a vector space to itself ($T: V \to V$).&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;$\mathcal{L}(V)$&lt;/strong&gt; : The set of all operators on $V$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;2. Powers of an Operator&lt;/h3&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;For an operator $T \in \mathcal{L}(V)$ and a positive integer $m$:&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;$T^m = \underbrace{T \circ \dots \circ T}_{m \text{ times}}$ (Composition of maps).&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;$T^0 = I$ (Identity operator).&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;If $T$ is invertible, $T^{-m} = (T^{-1})^m$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;
    
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Exponent Rules:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
    $T^m \circ T^n = T^{m+n}$&lt;br&gt;
    $(T^m)^n = T^{mn}$&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;3. Polynomials Applied to Operators&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;p&gt;Let $p(z) = a_0 + a_1 z + \dots + a_m z^m$ be a polynomial with coefficients in $\mathbf{F}$. We define $p(T)$ as:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ p(T) = a_0 I + a_1 T + \dots + a_m T^m $$

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin: 20px 0;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Example: Differentiation Operator&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        Let $P(\mathbf{R})$ be the space of real polynomials and let $D$ be the differentiation operator ($Dp = p'$).&lt;br&gt;
        If $p(x) = 7 - 3x + 5x^2$, then according to the definition:&lt;br&gt;
        $$ p(D) = 7I - 3D + 5D^2 $$
        Applying this to a polynomial $q$:
        $$ p(D)(q) = 7q - 3q' + 5q'' $$
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Algebraic Properties&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;The map $p \mapsto p(T)$ is a linear map from $P(\mathbf{F})$ to $\mathcal{L}(V)$. A crucial property is multiplicativity:&lt;/p&gt;
    $$ (pq)(T) = p(T) \circ q(T) $$
    
    &lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Corollary (Commutativity):&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
    Any two polynomials in $T$ commute with each other.
    $$ p(T) \circ q(T) = q(T) \circ p(T) $$
    Since operator multiplication is generally not commutative, this property is very useful.&lt;/p&gt;

    &lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 40px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #ddd;&quot;&gt;

    &lt;h3 style=&quot;color: #0056b3;&quot;&gt;4. Existence of Eigenvalues&lt;/h3&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #28a745; border-left: 5px solid #28a745; padding: 20px; background-color: #f6fff8; border-radius: 4px;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 0; color: #28a745;&quot;&gt;Theorem&lt;/h4&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Every operator on a finite-dimensional, nonzero, &lt;strong&gt;complex&lt;/strong&gt; vector space has an eigenvalue.&lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 20px; color: #d9534f;&quot;&gt;Important Constraints&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Real Vector Spaces:&lt;/strong&gt; False. Consider rotation by $90^\circ$ on $\mathbf{R}^2$ ($T(x, y) = (-y, x)$). It has no real eigenvalues because no non-zero vector is mapped to a scalar multiple of itself.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Infinite-dimensional Spaces:&lt;/strong&gt; False. Consider the multiplication operator on complex polynomials defined by $(Tp)(z) = z \cdot p(z)$.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;

    &lt;h4 style=&quot;margin-top: 30px;&quot;&gt;Proof (Without Determinants)&lt;/h4&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;Let $V$ be a complex vector space with $\dim V = n &gt; 0$, and $T \in \mathcal{L}(V)$.&lt;/p&gt;
    
    &lt;ol&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Choose a nonzero vector $v \in V$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Consider the list of $n+1$ vectors: $(v, Tv, T^2v, \dots, T^n v)$.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Since $\dim V = n$, this list is linearly dependent. Thus, there exist scalars $a_0, \dots, a_n \in \mathbf{C}$ (not all zero) such that:
        $$ a_0 v + a_1 Tv + \dots + a_n T^n v = 0 $$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Let $p(z) = a_0 + a_1 z + \dots + a_n z^n$. By the &lt;strong&gt;Fundamental Theorem of Algebra&lt;/strong&gt;, we can factor $p(z)$:
        $$ p(z) = c(z - \lambda_1) \dots (z - \lambda_m) $$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Substituting $T$ for $z$, the equation becomes:
        $$ c(T - \lambda_1 I) \dots (T - \lambda_m I)v = 0 $$&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Since $c \ne 0$ and $v \ne 0$, the operator product applied to $v$ is zero. This implies that at least one of the factors, say $(T - \lambda_j I)$, is &lt;strong&gt;not injective&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;If $(T - \lambda_j I)$ is not injective, then its null space is non-trivial. Thus, $\lambda_j$ is an eigenvalue. $\blacksquare$&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ol&gt;

    &lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #eef; padding: 15px; border-radius: 5px; margin-top: 20px; font-size: 0.9em;&quot;&gt;
        &lt;strong&gt;Note on Determinants:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;
        Most textbooks prove this using the characteristic polynomial $\det(\lambda I - T)$. This book avoids that approach to define eigenvalues directly from the geometry and structure of vector spaces, without relying on the complex definition of determinants early on.
    &lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;</description>
      <category>수리과학/Linear Algebra</category>
      <author>파츄리 노우릿지</author>
      <guid isPermaLink="true">https://yohaku1.tistory.com/106</guid>
      <comments>https://yohaku1.tistory.com/106#entry106comment</comments>
      <pubDate>Fri, 12 Dec 2025 13:57:54 +0900</pubDate>
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